Energy Efficiency and the Environment

Energy, Efficiency and the Environment: Energy Auditing

2010-08-21T16:15:00.000+12:00

Hello and welcome back to my block on Energy, Efficiency and the Environment.

Ok, to start then, lets look at the start of the energy auditing series.

1) Energy Balance.

Perhaps the one of the single most important aspects of an energy audit. The energy balance will identify about 80% of where your investigations will begin. As mentioned before this is very time consuming in terms of site visits and also desktop studies. The time invested in an energy balance can not be underestimated however and without this one would question the legitimacy of an energy audit. Suffice to say I have read some energy audits from the Carbon trust, written by so called CIBSE members that are are appalling and do not include an energy balance - how can this be from a CIBSE member?

Bloody shocking, but true. CIBSE is internationally recognised as the benchmark for Building Services Engineers. To me, the buck stops with CIBSE, pretty much what they say and their members is the fundamentals behind engineering, however, it is still possible to get shite energy reports from a registered member. The message is simple, even one of the most respected and regulated chartered associations has some that "slip through the net"

Anyway enough of griping (sorry to 99% of CIBSE engineers by the way) lets look at the energy balance in its naked form.....

The basics are simple -

record every item on site that has an electrical consumption
Through site investigation, experience and data recording, calculate electrical loads of the site

Naturally this extends further....

Every electrical item needs to be recorded on site !
calculate the phantom & running load of every electrical item
The operational times need to be identified
Staff and client population for the site needs to be identified
Discover seasonal electrical trends
Identify energy use types. E.g. Electric, gas, compressed air etc
Start a 24 hour seasonal energy table - cross reference with half hourly data
and so on.....

Really this is kind of straight forward, just follow a logical approach and project manage the situation.
For example you may be in the process of an energy audit for a 30 storey high rise. This may seem daunting at first, but the same principles apply as if it where a 2 storey office complex.

Record all electrical/gas/compressed air systems on site - tabulate your results.
from the initial site visit, determine which processes require recording - i.e. data loggers
installation of recording equipment - at the same time site interviews can be conducted
group electrical items e.g, ICT equipment, lighting, HVAC, specialist equipment.
start your spreadsheet !
list the energy consuming groups against 30 minute intervals over a 24 hour period
I usually start with the summer season. E.g in the northern hemisphere I will have my spreadsheet for energy consuming groups for mid month July.

So, for example my initial spreadsheet may look something like this.....

So, this is your estimation of the running loads of each electrical group for example. This has been derived at by your site visits, your professional experience, data logging equipment, site interviews, information available from electrical retailers, etc, etc. This is NOT a best guess, it is data that you have arrived at by a number of evidential (quantitative) and experience/observations/interviews based (qualatative) measures.

Now, this is where you sort the wheat from the chaff, so to speak. This preliminary table is not complete...it needs to be benchmarked against the actual, in other words, you have to qualify your data interpretation further and review according to actual half hour data available from the retailer/supplier, and remember this is only one energy stream for one point in time in the summer season. You will need to formulate your energy balance for the winter & summer, for ALL energy sources....gettin the picture now?

Well, I was hoping to at least get this part of the energy balance completed on this post, but the other half is starting to "nag".

Till the next post then,

Snapa

Energy Efficiency and the Environment - energy auditing

2010-07-27T16:54:00.000+12:00

Well good day to you all. It's been a while since I posted on here, been wrapped up with the usual work/life balance thing. Anyway The direction that I wish my energy blog to take for the foreseeable future is with auditing. Commonly reffered to as recomissioning energy auditing is a fundamental process in a companies endeavour to achieve real efficiencies.

It is common place for building HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning)systems to be out of calibration. Old lighting systems still in abundance, heating and cooling occuring at the same time and so on. Energy auditing can be simple or complex. Generally speaking there are 3 levels of energy audit. The first level is as the number suggests the most basic and with a certain amount of information a straight forward desktop study can be undertaken to help establish where efficiencies are being reduced and can be improved upon.

A level 1 energy audit usually leads to a level 2 type energy audit which is carried out on an advanced scale and will usually include an energy balance. A level 3 energy audit is the process of tnedering and installation. I would say that producing an energy balance is perhaps the most comprehensive and time consuming exercise of the audit - apart form the skill invlolved in determining where savings can be achieved obviously. It is definately technically challenging to achieve an accurate balance.

The energy balance consists of every single electrical consuming item to be recorded as well as its power rating. This includes things such as IT equipment, kitchen equipment, HVAC, lighting, specialist equipment and the like. Collating this information in itself will take up most of the time on a site visit. The trick is to accurately determine the power of every unit and then, with a combination of recording electrical consumption with data loggers and estimation through observations on site and experience - to determine the "energy balance". I believe the most accurate method for checking if this has been achieved properly is by cross referencing the hourly consumption that has been calculated, matches the half hourly/hourly data either provided by the client or supplied direct from the supplier/retailer.

The results are usually displayed in either a pie chart or a bar graph and displays each sections energy consumption every hour over a 24 hour period. It is usual to provide a number of balances e.g. Winter/summer - gas/electric etc. This tool then helps the auditor to determine at a glance where the most efficiencies in energy can be achieved and therefore where to direct most of his attention.

So then, the next and subsequent posts will centre on one aspect of auditing, whether this is lighting or IT equipment.

Until then,
Snapa

Energy efficiency and the environment

Efficient Energy Management

2010-02-13T09:14:00.002+13:00

Welcome back to my blog on the environment and energy efficiency. On this page I have highlited some main points to consider as part of your energy management plan. Hopefully this list will give you ideas to help formulate your own strategy.

Needs and expectations of efficient energy management in an organisation

What are your priorities and imperatives?

Development of organisational plan, goal setting

To assess an organisation’s specific energy management needs
To make savings in energy costs
To adopt a formal, written energy management policy.
To ensure that an organisation conforms to both organisational and govt environment requirements
To devise an environment and energy action plan
To develop consistencies of practice through all buildings in an organisation
To encourage participation in environment and sustainability drives to avoid unnecessary expenditure, improve cost-effectiveness, productivity and working conditions
To demonstrate a commitment to environmental protection

Monitoring

To record all assets in a centralised database-e.g. property, vehicles , consumption such as electricity, gas, water, waste streams, gasoline, diesel along with CO2 emissions generated and liabilities
To measure current energy usage
To consolidate invoicing and ensure that the prompt payment is achieved.
To provide regular, frequent and consistent energy monitoring to ensure any relevant highs and lows in consumption and costs are picked up
To measure result of energy supply and efficiency, environment initiatives
To consolidate invoicing and ensure that the prompt payment is achieved.
To set reduction goals
To track current projects expected to save energy, money, etc.
To check consistency of site consumption and budgets
To establish efficient controls for energy consumption
To reduce internal time hours spent as accurate information is obtained quickly
To measure the result of supply and energy efficiency initiatives
To provide and analyse load profiles for energy efficiencies
To track energy savings

Analysing-targeting

To give impartial and accurate reporting, which enables management to assess and control energy
To provide financial information that can be used to make strategic decisions regarding operating and environment activities
To analyse and compare the correctness and trends of historical usage with present day usage and costs and identify areas that require attention.
To improve efficiency and energy performance in a systematic way
To set targets for improved efficient performance
To develop consistencies of practice through all buildings in an organisation
To assist in evaluating and prioritizing the implementation of new technologies
To identify opportunities to improve energy performance
To highlight opportunities for cost avoidance
To prioritise actions taht affect the environment
To see how a certain building compares to a portfolio or peer group.
To assess a building's performance before it is bought or leased.
To facilitate assessment of property value and marketing rental properties
To establish a platform for continuous improvement
To allow management to be proactive with confidence
To set targets for improved efficient performance.
To gain control over energy consumption by reviewing and improving purchasing and operating practices
To benchmark against other like buildings to ascertain if they meet best practice

Reporting

To enable understanding and communication of energy management throughout organisation by use of consistent indicators.
To demonstrate conformance to both self and others
To give quality control over all energy management
To deliver energy expenditure management for all areas within an organisation
To improve energy performance in a systematic way
To demonstrate the management of energy as an indicator of overall management success
To demonstrate success and publicise achievement of goals
To be able to produce reporting for sustainability and environment purposes
To earn a recognised environmental rating
To gain recognition and celebrate success
To make the business case for efficient investments.
To present building performance to a potential buyer or lender.
To encourage participation in environment & sustainability drives
To enable easy delegation with accurate, meaningful reports
To ensure informed decisions lead to bottom line results
To improve teamwork by involving key personnel
To provide quality control over all energy management

Well thats all for the time being I hope the above has given you some pointers on efficient practises that can be put into place to help achieve a good balance between practical environment considerations and energy efficiency.

Energy Efficiency & the Environment¦Glossary

2010-01-11T14:01:00.003+13:00

Hello All and welcome back to my blog on energy efficiency and the environment. Thought it was time to add another post as it's been a while since I have been able to check my blog. I thought I would use this opportunity to explain some of the basic terms and systems used in the energy industry. Most are self explanatory, but I thought it would be useful for people who are just learning about this profession. The list is by no means exhaustive, but just gives a general idea of what is commonly referred to.

Carbon Neutral

Accepted terminology for something having net zero emissions

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The most important greenhouse gas (commercially speaking) CO2 emissions result from the combustion of fuel, from land use changes and from industrial processes

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e)

Currently 6 main green house gasses that are reported to cause climate change. Each are limited by the Kyoto protocol. Each gas has a different global warming potential. The mass of each gas emitted is translated into CO2e

Carbon Footprint

The sum of all green house gas emissions caused by an individual or organisation

Emissions conversion factor

Emissions factors enable a conversion to be made from the input measure of energy to the amount of carbon dioxide emissions that will result.

Green house gases

The 6 main green house gases stated previously that contribute to the green house effect when present in the atmosphere.

Renewable Energy

Energy derived from renewable energy sources such as wind power, wave, solar etc

ISO 14064

International standard for corporate emissions reporting

Offsetting

An emissions reduction, commonly resulting from a project undertaken in the developing world, which has been sold to compensate for emissions elsewhere. Offsets are commonly used to net off corporate emissions so that an organisation can claim to be carbon neutral.

Retailer

provider of energy to premises, the retailer is responsible for meter reading, invoicing and ensuring continuation of supply

BMS

building Management System – this allows the accurate and detailed control and recording of a buildings HVAC system. Can be used to remotely operate various switching arrangements with heating and cooling through to switching of lighting arrays

Power Factor
Basically gives an indication as to how electrically efficient an electrical device is, E.g. A power factor of 1 equals unity. Average power factors range from 0.5 to 0.9

UPS

Uninterruptable Power Supply, A device that enables continued power for a set duration during power failure. A UPS also provides “clean” power i.e. reduces the spikes that are apparent with standard electric, this reduces the potential for data loss or computer crashes for example

Total Power

The total power drawn by a device or installation including reactive power (kVAr)

kWh
Kilo Watt Hour, a unit of measure of energy consumed over 1 hour.

kVa

Kilo Volt amperes, a maximum demand profile, retailers will charge on a maximum demand of a facility.

NHH

Non Half Hourly Meter, mainly single phase with manual meter reading, generally used for domestic, light commercial

TOU

Time Of Use Meter, mainly 3 phase meter with consumption recorded every half hour, information can be read remotely, mainly for larger commercial and industrial

CHP

Combined Heat & Power. HVAC plant that utilises the heat from its process to improve efficiency

HVAC

Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Heat Exchanger

Efficient way of transferring heat from one fluid to another

Sensible Cooling

Cooling of air, but with the temperature remaining above the dew point

R-Value

A measure of thermal resistance

Well, I hope you find all of the above useful, that aall for now on my energy post, next I will be looking further at energy efficient technologies.

Snapa.

energy efficiency and the environment

2009-12-23T17:11:00.018+13:00

Well with the recent Copenhagen disaster one must wonder where we go from here! Back in October there were hints that there would be difficulties at Copenhagen. With mutterings of one country not prepared to do anything unless the other does - and so on.

Also the timely attempts to sabotage Copenhagen regarding emails stating misleading research and the like only gave fuel to politicians reluctant to give serious consideration to the subject. Dispite popular belief Obama did quite well, as his hands are pretty much tied by the Senate. Anyway, we'll just have to see what Mexico brings next year.

Looking through opinion polls, generally the other day and what really concerned me is that a staggering high percentage of people actually believe that climate change is a myth ! Without doubt climate change is occurring, this is an undeniable fact by ALL scientists, what is in question is whether climate change is in actual fact man-made, and , despite popular opinion there is still some contention regarding this.

The main body of the argument for mane made climate change is the IPCC (Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change) report, that is constantly referred to in numerous magazines, articles, tv etc. What many of you may not be aware of is the NIPCC (Non-Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change) Now this, to say the least is a very researched paper- equally, if not more to the IPCC. If you are curious check out this link http://www.nipccreport.org/, just cut and paste into your browser window. I look forward to your comments on this......efficiency

Alternatively you can always check the most recent updates on the subject, the follwoing link is a relatively new site containing a collection of expert opinions from across the globe.
http://environment.site50.net/category/climate-change/
nment

Energy Efficiency & the Environment¦Fuel Cells

2009-10-06T19:57:00.013+13:00

Welcome back, this is the last installment of the fuel cells review....
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The DTI (2003) opine that whilst it is apparent that vehicle propulsion is still in its infancy, Powell et al (2004, p.15) aknowledges that fuel cells are “ideal candidates for CHP” claiming efficiencies as high as 80% can be achieved. efficiency
The realm of portable applications, auxillary power units and gensets is where fuel cells will no doubt excel. Adner and Levinthal (see Hendry, Harborne, Brown 2004, p.7) opine “that the normal situation for radical innovation, is with progress being made in steps through marketing innovations to niches, and then broadening these niches until a mainstream market forms” Auxillary power and portable applications includes for plant such as battery chargers, UPS² systems, portable generators and consumer electronics.environment.environment efficiency .environment ciency
It should be remembered that fuel cells have two main characteristics. The ability to produce electricity and the abiltity to produce heat. It is the opinion of Marsh (2007) that the main fuel cells that are showing dominance within the market today are: ¹ Generator ² Uninteruptable Power Supply · Polymer Eloctrolyte Membrane (PEM) · Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) · Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) For the UK, development of fuel cells has centered mainly around two types of fuel cells, these being SOFC and PEM (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004) PEM and SOFC fuel cells use a solid polymer electrolyte, which is generally considered favourable compared to direct methanol fuel cells which use liquid electrolyte that can be suseptable to corrosion and gas vapour (Powell et al 2004). The other advantages for the PEM and SOFC cells is the operating tempratures. The PEM has a low operating temprature giving a fast start up time with an electrolyte membrane that is no thicker than a couple of sheets of paper (HSE 2004) this allows a large number of cells to be arranged in a short space allowing the unit to provide a lot of power from a relatively small unit. Making the unit ideal for stationary and portable power. The SOFC on contrast to the PEM has a high operating temprature, this is in the region of 700°C to 1000°C. Due to the high operating temperature a reformer is not required and various hydrocarbon fuels can be utilised by the cell, the high heat potential from this type of fuel cell makes CHP a practicle application. (USDE 2000) It is true that to say that “The Environmental avantages of fuel cells also vary with their application” (Evers, 2003, p.727) and this seems the case with direct methanol fuel cells which, despite using a liquid electrolyte is considerd an appropriate fuel stock for the use in portable electronic appliances (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004) and this is perhaps why Marsh (2007, p.10) states “DMFC is the type of fuel cell likely to achieve commercial status first”. environment efficiency environment efficiency environment efficiency
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Plant Replacement To consider the practicality and cost implications with replacing end of life plant within the UK construction industry, with fuel cell technology the following requires addressing: · National Infrastructure and vehicles · Portable Applications for use on a construction site · Auxillary Power Units on a construction site · Gensets and remote power. · Combined Heat and power. It is fair to say, that fuel cell technology in terms of vehicle propulsion, is not at this time a commercial consideration when considering replacing vehicular plant “...fuel cells are curently commercially competative only in narrow ‘premium power’ niches wher quality of electricity are of primary concern or where no other technology is appropriate” (DTI 2006, p.6) So, to address the aims and objectives of the hypothesis and to give consideration to secondary data and the methodology to be formulated following this report, the speed of technological advancement in fuel cells (Marsh 2007) gives an indication as to wether replacing end of life plant is a commercial viability. DTI (2007, p.14) reports that the SOFC stack, “offers the potential for application in a wide range of market sectors beyond grid connected CHP” It is considered then, that this technology is also inceasing at a reasonable speed (Graves, 2007) and to consider the observations of Powell et al (2004) that CHP is, perhaps a direction in the industrial, domestic and construction sector that Fuell cells will excel. As stated previously it has also been identified that PEM stacks are also benefitting from many years of UK research as to is SOFC stacks.environment efficiency
Pem fuel cells commercial viability relies on membrane technology, allowing many independant cells to be stacked into a short space with low weight and high power, the additional benefit is of a low operating temprature of approximatley 60°C with high power (HSE 2004). Additional research DTI (2006) concurrs that “[PEM advancement] techniques [are] amenable to mass production]” To date, in the UK, evidence that portable fuel cells have been used within the construction sector is limited, but not entirely uncommon. Portable battery chargers and remote chargers as well as auxillary power units finding their way slowly, but surely, into the construction sector, and this is in preference to traditional portable gensets. (Weston & Matcham 2002) This may seem unusual. Why purchase a more expensive, high technology portable appliance within construction? As (Evers, 2003) emphasises, niche markets have been identifed by the emergence of fuel cell technology. environment efficiency
Construction covers a vast spectrum of activities, from demolition through to intricate work, which may at times require a power source that is not as intrusive as a portable generator. Amongst other activities, communication has always been of vital importance in relaying instructions on site (Chudley & Greeno 2002). Direct Methanol Fuel Cells are begining to show signs of achieving results that some consider may elapse existing communciation devices sources of supply, Marsh (2007). Although this technology relies on a liquid electrolyte, in micro portable systems, as visited earlier within this report it is considered appropriate and indications suggest from various journal publications (FC Focus 2007) that the technology may far surpass existing battery configurations (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004). Conclusion Investment, corporte responsibilty, design & build, planning, regeneration, Agenda 21, Kyoto agreement, nuclear fuel, renewable technology, hydrogen ecomcomy, payback periods. Just a few considerations, all of which ask questions and the requirement to address the entire picture of microgeneration technology, exiting construction procedures, fossil fuel extraction and what is the alternative. environment efficiency
Bentham (2004, p.2) suggests that amongst the above questions, before practicle issues of payback periods and even government grants can be taken into consideration in replacing plant or utilising emerging technology, a cornerstone of influence is “social acceptance”, if there is a lack of interest people will simply adopt a blasé attitude, on the other hand however, if too much enthusiasm is placed on a product too soon, “this may become a threat, because of the [unwarranted] expectations of the public and consumers” To avoid unwarranted expectations from members of public and to gain social acceptance the technology requires more demonstration units and also “...more field trials [which] would increase customer understanding...” (Sanderson 2005, p.18). Graham, Cruden, Hart (2002) opine that because the technology is still very new, it is this in itself, amongst high costs that reluctance of investment is commonplace and that this may continue until emergence of well known brands offer the client reasurrances of hydrogen safety as well as guaranteed efficiencies and life of plant. environment efficiency
It seems highly likely as suggested by Evers (2003) that after social acceptance is no longer an obstacle that fuel cells main market emergence will be in the portable power, CHP and UPS systems. environment efficiency environment efficiency
Suffice to say the first commercial sale of a full UPS system in July of this year was completed. The Fuel cell UPS system was purchased by a company that deals with the purchase and sales of stocks and shares, which required continued power in the event of power failure. So to use a genset for continued power would be completely impracticle, therfore a fuel cell was chosen mainly because noise pollution is virtually eliminated, due to no moving parts, unlike a generator (Anon 2007).environment efficiency
It is not unreasonable then, to speculate that this very niche market is where fuel cells will initially excel. Note: If this 2nd part literature review was to be taken forward then the methodolgy, as well as the designing of questionaires as identified in the part 1 submission would be carried out in an endeavour to prove the hypothesis and null hypothesis true or false. This literature review would be considered as primary data and also an aid in achieving triangualtion of results.
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Appendices. Appendix A..............................................Fuel Cell Characteristics Appendix B...................................................5KW PEM Fuel Stack Appendix A soon to be uploaded Appendix B soon to be uploaded References Anon., (2007) First Order for Fuel Cell UPS. Electrical Review., 240(7), pp. 5-6 Anon (2003) Review of UK Fuel Cell Commercial Potential. (s.l.): (s.n.) Ashwini. R., (2007) Fuel Cells inch forward. FCFocus The International Fuel Cell Magazine., 7(2), pp.14-15 Bentham. J., (2004) Lighthouses for Hydrogen. [Online]. Available at: Reprint of Shell Venster, November 2004. (s.n). Chudley. R., and Greeno. R., Building Construction Handbook: Incorporating Current Building And Construction Regulations. 4th ed Cornwall: MPG Books Ltd. Crawley. G., and Butler., Low Carbon Communities. [Online]. Dutton A.G. (2002) Hydrogen Energy Technology. [Online]. Available at: http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/wp17.pdf>
Tyndall Working Paper TWP 17. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change, University of East Anglia: Norwich. Evers A. A., (2003) Go To Where The Market Is! Challenges And Opportunities To Bring Fuel Cells To The International Market. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy., 28(7), pp.725-733 Graham. H., Cruden. A., and Hart. J., (2002) Assesment Of The Implementation Issues For Fuel Cells In Domestic And Small Scale Stationary Power Generation And CHP Applications. [Online]. Available at: http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file15205.pdf> environment efficiency
Graves. D., Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Carbon Sequestration. [Online]. Available at: NiSource Energy Technologies Working Paper. (s.n). Great Britain. Department of Trade and Industry., (2003). Energy White Paper: Our Energy Future, Creating a Low Carbon Economy. [Online]. Available at: London: The Stationary Office [Accessed 24th July 2007] GREAT BRITAIN. Department of Trade and Industry., (2003). A Sustainable Energy Technology Route Map On Fuel Cells. [Online]. Available at: London, The Stationary Office GREAT BRITAIN. Department of Trade and Industry., (2006). Advanced PEM Stack Development. [Online]. Available at: London, The Stationary Office Great Britain. Department of Trade and Industry., (2006). A Lightweight Array Plate With Integrated Reformer For A Metal Supported SOFC Stack. [Online]. Available at: London: The Stationary Office Great Britain. Health and Safety Executive., (2002). Fuel Cells: Understand the Hazards, Control the risks. 1st ed. Suffolk: HSE Books. Hendry. C., Harbone. P., and Brown. J., (2004) Fuel Cell Innovation: A developing UK Industry?. Research Paper, London Cass Business School: City Campus. Kala. P., and Hicks. M., (2004) Defence Technical Information Centre., ed., 30th Environmental and Energy Symposium & Exhibition. 5 - 8 April 2004. San Diego: National Defense Industrial Association. Leo. J., Blomen M. J., and Mugerwa. M. N., (1993) Fuel Cell Systems. 1st ed. New York: Plenum Publishers Marsh. G., (2007) Reality Beckons?. FCFocus The International Fuel Cell Magazine., 1(2), pp.10-15 McMullan. R., (2002) Environmental Science in Buildings. 5th ed. Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan Murphy, E. R. P., (2003) Fuel Cell Folly: Preliminary. [Online]. Peters. M and Powell. J., (2001) A Stakeholder Analysis of Barriers And Opportunities For Stationary Fuel Cell Applications In The UK. CSERGE Working Paper ECM 06-01. Centre For Social And Economic Research On The Global Environment, University Of East Anglia: Norwich. Powell. J., Peters. M., Ruddell. A., and Halliday. J., Fuel Cells for a Sustainable Future. [Online]. Tyndall Working Paper TWP 50. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change, University of East Anglia, Norwich. [Accessed 4th September 2007] SAE International., (2002). Fuel Cell Technology Showcase: History of Fuel Cells. [Online]. Available at: http://www.sae.org/fuelcells/fuelcells-history.htm> environment efficiency
USA: SAE International. [Accessed 12th June 2007] Sanderson. T. K., (2005) An Updated Assesment Of The Prospects For Fuel Cells In Stationary Power And CHP. [Online]. Available at: http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file18181.pdf> Turner. J. A., (1999) A Realizable Renewable Energy Future. Science Magazine., 285(30th July), pp.687-689 USA. U.S Department of Energy., (2000). Fuel Cell Handbook. 5th ed. USA: National Energy Technology Laboratory. Utterback J. M., (1994). Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation. 1st ed. United States of America: Harvard Business School Press. Weston. M and Matcham. W., (2002) Portable Power Applications of Fuel Cells. (s.l.): (s.n.) Bibliography Cheshire. D., Grant Z. (2007) Sustainability: CIBSE Guide L. 1st ed. Norfolk: Page Bros. (Norwich) Ltd. Watson. P., (2005) Course Notes for BSc (Hons) Building Engineering: Research Methods. 1st ed. Sheffield: Hallam University Further Reading J. Larminie and A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons Ltd (2003). M.H. Westbrook, The Electric Car: Development and Future of Battery, Hybrid and Fuel-Cell Cars, London: Institution of Electrical Engineers; Society of Automotive Engineers (2001). High-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Fundamentals, Design and Applications by S.C. Singhal and K. Kendall (Eds.), Publisher: Elsevier Science (2004).

energy efficiency and the environment

2009-10-04T18:30:00.012+13:00

A Critical Evaluation Of Emerging Fuel Cell Technology Within The UK Construction Sector. Part 2.

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Introduction

This report will address the questions to literature previously documented in part 1 and present primary data towards the methodology to be established, and also determine the theoretical body of knowledge to identify critical issues associated with emerging fuel cell technology.

Literature Review

Fuel Cells, A Brief History

“Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a reaction directly into electrical energy” (USDE 2000, p.16)
Contrary to popular belief fuel cells have been researched for decades and “..despite almost one hundred and fifty years of intermitent research [Solid Oxide Fuel Cells] are only now approaching commercialisation” (Weston & Matcham, 2002 p.5). Obviously in the early stages of fuel cell research technical obstacles would have certainly been a barrier to further research. The solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) for example has a working temprature of between 700°C and 1000°C (FcFocus 2007). This would have certainly caused difficulties in the early part of the 19th century. It was Francis Bacon who developed the first fuel cell that was successful in 1932, with a hydrogen-oxygen cell using alkaline electrolytes and nickel electrodes. Fig 1 demonatrates how a modern basic fuel cell (Proton Exchange Membrane) produces electricity. Please also see Appendix B for an actual working model.
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Exploded View
Fig 1.

Pressureised Hydrogen is forced through the anode and then to the catalyst, which causes a chemical reaction where the hydrogen oxidises into H+ ions and 2 electrons (e-). The elctrons are then conducted through the anode into a circuit creating a voltage before returning back to the cathode. At the cathode oxygen is forced through, and again, upon reaching the catalyst it forms two oxygen atoms. The H+ ions are atrracted through the catalyst by negatively charged oxgen molecules to then form water (H2O) as a waste product. (Bloman and Mugerwa 1993).

In 1959, Francis Bacon moved on to produce and demostrate a 5Kw fuel cell system along with Harry Karl Ihrig who “...presented his now-famous 20-horsepower fuel cell-powered tractor that same year”. (SAE 2007, p.1). The energy crisis of the mid - 1970s, led to a rush to promote energy efficient and sustainable technologies as well as “..crash programmes in developing renewable sources..” (Turner 1999a, p. 687)

As supply and demand equalised during the 1980s enevitably renewable projects were reduced but as Turner (1999b, p. 687) continues to explain this did leave a legacy that “..spurred work to avoid or remedy environmental damage from fossil fuel extraction, processing and transport..”. It was NASA that then took up the helm, in more serious research of the technology, for the Appollo program to provide the in flight electrical requirement, as nuclear reaction was considered far too dangerous and solar power too bulky to use in space vehicles. “...[This] involvement [by NASA] is one of the primary reasons that the technology is now viable for the private sector...” (Kala & Hicks 2004, p.5)
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Alkaline cells were used until the development of solid polymer cells, which prompted a return to low temprature and efficient PEM type fuel cells (Murphy 2003). Since the continued development of technology there are now numerous different types of fuel cells, each with distinct advantages and disadvantages. Fuel cells are capable of producing both electricity and heat and are generally categorised by their electrolite (Catalyst used for transformation of energy) and operating temprature (Anon 2003a) The most common fuel cells are currently:

· Polymer Eloctrolyte Membrane (PEM)
· Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
· Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
· Metal Air Fuel Cell (MAFC)
· Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
· Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
· Molton Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
· Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC)
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It is beyond the scope of this report to explain the technical aspects of each type of fuel cell but additional technical information can be obtained by seeing appendix A. The main interest within this literature review is primarily directed at whether fuel cells are a viable alternative when replacing existing plant in the UK construction sector and to help fulfill the aims and objectives identified in part 1.
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To simplify this process and to give a sample for comparison, generally fuel cells that operate at high tempratures are ideal for stationary power and CHP (Combined Heat and Power) where as fuel cells that operate at lower tempratures are ideal for portable and mobile applications (Anon 2003b). It is this practical application that will be reviewed throughout this report.
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Hydrogen Economy

“Hydrogen looks likely to play a key role in future
low-carbon energy systems, as an ‘energy carrier’
through which non-fossil energy can replace fossil fuels”
(DTI 2003, p.71)

Hydrogen , whilst in abundance on earth is not available in a natural state and therfore requires “manufacturing from some other material that includes hydrogen [as a component]” (Murphy 2003,
p.8) This is where one of the myths of fuel cells is revealed Murphy (2003) identifies that the extraction process generates pollutants from fuel burning power plants during the extraction process known as ‘reforming’. It is possible however, to reduce this significantly through Carbon sequestration systems (Graves, 2006) this is the process of capturing the CO2 gas and storing this in the earth for natural dispersal.
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Ultimately, for a truly renewable and CO2 free fuel cell system, hydrogen will be produced from “electrolysis of water” (Crawley & Butler 2007, p.4) powered from a renewable energy source e.g. Wind turbines to produce Hydrogen. Fig 2. helps to give an idea of the rudimentary basics of electrolysis. An electrical current is passed from the direct current battery through the electrolyte (in this example an acid solution) but this can also be water, methanol, alkaline etc. The electrical current enters the electrolyte via 2 electrodes. The positive electrode is called the anode with the negative called the cathode. This creates a chemical reaction, essentially splitting the sum of components of the electrolyte to produce Hydrogen and oxygen gas (McMullan 2002)
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Fig. 2
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Dutton (2002) however, places emphasis on the fact that the convertion of electrcity from renewable sources and then back into electrcity results in energy losses and additional costs. Weston & Matchum (2002, p.40) quantify this stating a “...10–30% loss...” to produce hydrogen with a “...further 50% loss...” to convert back to electrcity. Comparable with a “...5-10% [loss]...” of distributing the same electricity across the UK national grid. Although It should be noted that this is a also a relatively new technology (Raj 2007) and it would simply be unrealistic to compare “...an established infrastructure built on over 100 years of development and process novation...” (Hendry, Harborne, Brown 2004, p.5) with an emerging technology. It does raise the question though, as to the scope that fuel cells currently have as an alternative energy source within the market. Clearly at this present moment in time, in terms of infrastructure change, fuel cells have a long way to go and the “...technology has yet to enter the arena of economic viability alongside already established (and viable) technologies” (Powell et al 2004, p.11)

No doubt that there is difficulty with transportation, distribution and also storage of hydrogen. And without government intervention and further demonstration programmes, the technology is unlikely “to develop as a credible alternative energy technology” (Peters & Powell 2001, p.12).

Market Emergence
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Utterback (2004) explains a process which seems to resemble the current trend of fuel cells, this being that of the fluid phase. This is a period of intense innovative production, eventually this leads to a transitional phase where an industy standard design is achieved and is marketed. DTI (2003) establishes the main applications for fuel cells which are: -
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· Vehicle Propulsion
· Auxillary Power Units
· Distributed Generation/CHP
· Domestic and small commercial CHP
· Small Gensets¹ and Remote Power
· Portable Applications.

Continuation to follow soon...

Energy Efficiency & the Environment¦Fuel Cells

2009-10-03T08:38:00.010+13:00

A Critical Evaluation Of Emerging Fuel Cell Technology Within The UK Construction Sector. Part 1.

Introduction

45% of energy generated is used to power and maintain buildings, and 5% to construct them. The heating, lighting and cooling of buildings directly through the burning of fossil fuels (gas, coal, oil) and indirectly through the use of electricity is the primary source of Carbon Dioxide and accounts for half of all global warming CIOB (2001)
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Since the establishment of the Kyoto protocol in 1997 there has been increasing attention drawn to climate change and the affect of Co2 emissions on the acceleration of global warming. In the UK central government have aknowledged this by furthering the involvement of the UK by intending to reduce Co2 levels by 20% below 1990 levels by 2010. This trend coupled with the climate change levy tax as well as government funding for ‘greener’ technologies has led to increased marketing and research of renewable technologies to help address the challenge of reducing the carbon footprint of man made structures. The CIOB (2001) goes on further to state that by using renewable energy and alternative efficient technology is a way to help achieve sustainable development. This research project is intended to contribute to the subject and bring the readers attention to the micro generation technologies available, how and why plant and operation of services has a direct affect on the environment and endeavour to determine if the hypothesis is true or false.
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Hypothesis:
Fuel cell technology is a viable alternative to existing technolgies when replacing end of life plant
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Null Hypothesis:
Fuel cell technology is not a viable alternative to existing technolgies when replacing end of life plant
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Aims:
The research project has two broad aims. First to identify the nature of fuel cells and how they are currently used within the construction industry sector; secondly to establish the impact that efficient fuel cells have on existing micro generation technologies.
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Objectives:
1. To establish the historical development of fuel cells.
2. To investigate fuel cell technology as an alternative renewable energy source
3. To assertain the extent of new technology market saturation.
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Research Process
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Qualitative and quantitative data will be used for the purpose of this research project. This will be gathered using questionnaires, case studies, samples and also the use of trade journals and publications as part of a desk based exercise. Consideration has been given especially to some of the following points:
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· To prove the hypothesis or null hypothesis requires a significant amount of primary quantitative data due to the technical/engineering terminology that will be used in gathering data.
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· The research will also require the submission of qualitative data to help achieve the aims and objectives of the report.
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· The quality of data received from correspondence must be of a high caliber and accurate, there must be strong weighting of questions towards fact rather than theory.
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· Selection of Methodology will require significant pre-planning and testing of all systems chosen therefore some methods will be favored than others and not all methods available will be used, this will allow the accurate implementation of data gathering due to the additional time that can be spent on each method chosen.

· Background knowledge must be noted for this research project as my personal knowledge of the array of different micro generation technologies can have two impacts. Firstly my understanding may be useful in the language used for questions Gummerson (2000) states that pre-understanding can speed up the process of data collection on the other hand however my understanding can have a direct affect in influencing bias in the research and that this should be supressed when analysing qualitative data.

Questionnaire/Pilot Study

After completing the literature review, questions will be raised to help improve the methodology approach. At this stage the questionnaire design can be given serious consideration along with the pilot study that will be required. The pilot study is a straight forward way of determining if the questionnaire is receiving the correct type of response and should establish whether the questionnaire is in the correct format, if the layout is simple and easy to complete as well as identifying fundamental errors in why relevant areas of research Have been omitted. Data extrapolated from the pilot study will allow further refinement to the survey and therefore this will help establish the language and style of the questionnaire, Youngman (1986) suggests 6 questionnaire types that can be utilized by the researcher, these are:-
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List
A list of items is offered to the respondent, any of which may be answered.
Category
The respondent can reply to set categories only, e.g. how many amps is considered fatal to human beings, 1, 3, 50, 300, 500
Ranking
The respondent is asked to rate a set of objects or attitudes in ranking order. E.g. a set of qualities or characteristics
Scale
There can be varying stages of scaling devices, such as the rating scale or the linkert method.
Quantity
The response is represented as a number giving an amount of some particular characteristic. E.g. Staff work to 99% attendance – a rating out of 10 can be given to this.
Grid
A table or grid is provided; this allows the respondent to answer more than one question at a time.
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The questionnaire is an important and useful device for the collation of data. Time well spent at the design stage will ensure a more accurate response. The original intention for the design of the questionnaire due to the nature of this research project was for a more quantitative approach mainly due to the specialist subject matter, requiring a response based more on technical ability, rather than a personal viewpoint. After further consideration however, and taking into account the short timescale for the research a two-tier questionnaire will be used of qualitative and quantitative data. The two questionnaires will be sent out selectively with an accompanying letter stating the reason for the questionnaire and general instructions, along with each and every questionnaire will be a pre-paid return envelope as it is considered that this is likely to increase the chance of having the questionnaires returned.

The quantitative questionnaire will be sent to a number of manufactures and engineers purely for technical permissible data. A coding system of the collected quantitative data will used to develop a range of appropriate closed-ended quantitative questions. This will allow statistical manipulation and comparison of the results Gill et al (1997). The second questionnaire will be qualitative with open questions based on the rating scale method. This will help ascertain the market penetration of fuel cell technology and also the sentiment of respondents towards emerging technologies, However, care must be taken not to goad the respondent into a biased automatic response from the questionnaire, Oppenheim (1992) continues to explain that there is the real risk that the design can be emotionally coloured therefore affecting an independent view. The two-tier approach to the questionnaire will assist with the triangulation of methodology, which is explained further on in this research project.
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Interviews.

Due to the time constraints of the research project it will not be possible to carry out interviews as a data collection mechanism. The interview is a long process, which also requires a great deal of preparation and pre-testing of the interview schedule. The interviews would no doubt need to conducted by myself, this in itself is also another reason why interviews will not take place, especially due to the fact of the lack of personal experience in conducting interviews, Smith (1975, p.183) states that “Interviewer trainees…[carry out interviews]….under the supervision of an experienced interviewer” while Bell (1993, p.94) concurs that “interviews require a great deal of expertise to control”

It is noted that the absence of interviews as part of the methodology will reduce the amount of triangulation of data, but it is also considered that the two-tier questionnaire combined with case studies, sampling and the literature review will allow sufficient accurate and unbiased data in the short time frame given, rather than attempting to put together an interview that lacks structure and relevant responses from interviewees.
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Sample.

“Sampling usually permits the researcher to cut costs, reduce manpower requirements, gather information more quickly, and to obtain more comprehensive data” Smith (1975, p.106)

The sample population chosen is done so with the endeavour to achieve reasonable representation. The sample will be in the form of structured self-completion questionnaires and much the same as the two tier questionnaires, will also be piloted to ascertain the correct structure and to also ensure that a large response is attained. Sampling techniques will, “take universe heterogeneity into consideration” Smith (1975, p.109) in an attempt as far as reasonable practicable to target the correct sample universe. The data collected from the initial two questionnaires and the literature review will help to determine the sample universe. This may be considered as a third tier approach; however, the sampling is more specialised and separate to the questionnaires In terms of structure and style inviting the respondent to consider hypothetical scenarios of a mechanical & electrical nature. The sample is qualitative in nature (and open) and respondents are invited to comment on their actions given certain constraints. This will help gauge key decision processes that are considered at purchasing stage E.g. how much consideration is given to payback periods when replacing end of life plant.
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Historical case study

The historical case studies will help to achieve a collation of additional secondary data for the research project. This method of research allows in depth study within a limited timescale and will hopefully identify key issues and aid the decision in determining whether the hypothesis is true. No doubt that for this particular project the case study will be a valid and useful tool allowing to identify the various processes that are ongoing, the work of Bassey (see Bell 1993, p.9) when considering the facts about case studies states, “if by publication of the findings they extend the boundaries of existing knowledge, then they are valid forms of….research”
Participative Observation
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Participative observation, often referred to as The Ethnographic style is the study of groups to collate information relevant to the researcher and will include techniques by the researcher to monitor and measure: form, duration, consequences of behaviour, attitudes and behaviours. This method as a research tool is extremely time consuming and absorbing, perhaps more than preparing and carrying out interviews. “[Participative] observation encompasses not only things that one witnesses through ones visual and audio senses, but also includes any documents, diaries, records, frequency counts, maps, and the like that one may be able to obtain in particular settings” Prus (1996, p.18) It is not uncommon for the observer to actually become integrated into the group and this can lead to bias, Hutchinson (1988) recommends that way one can avoid this is by using a diary or a journal to record personal feelings in an attempt to become aware of, and transcending personal bias. It is no doubt that unless the researcher has a “methodology that is sensitive to the burman capacity for ‘symbolic interaction” Prus (1996, p.18) this may lead to members of the group not co-operating entirely and even engaging in deception. Due to the complexities and involvement of time required it is not possible to use the Ethnographic method for this research project.
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Triangulation of Data

Denzin (1978) first introduced the four methods of triangulation, which are: -
Methods Triangulation
Triangulation of Sources
Triangulation through multiple analysis
Theory triangulation
For this research project the method of triangulation that will be used is the methods triangulation, which is comparing data from different qualitative and quantitative methods. Triangulation is an important factor to help achieve crosschecking of data compiled during research also according to Smith (1975) triangulation of methodology can be used to strengthen qualitative findings by combining observation, information and documentary sources.

Presentation of Findings
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After collation of all the data returned from the various methods that I will be using consideration is then given to the interpretation and presentation of the evidence. The responses will return a vast amount of evidence and this can only truly be interpreted if organised into categories, which can be expressed as tables, charts, text or graphs. Ideally Bassey’s (1990) ground rule 2 should be observed which states that data should be collected and recorded in a systematic way so that if necessary it can be checked by others. All of which will help in formulating a conclusion and testing the hypothesis. In my endeavour to correctly analyse the statistics I will be considering some of the following: -

· Similarities, grouping, items of significance
· Preparation of summary sheets
· Communicating findings, perhaps experimenting with different methods
· Highlighting significant aspects of findings.

Once the topic of research has been chosen it is glaringly apparent that a significant amount of time and planning is required in the selection process of the methodology. The methodology, as now can be appreciated is absolutely crucial in the gathering of accurate, relevant and rich in material data Woods (1999). Whilst formulating a relevant methodology the reader will also form a more logical approach to the research project, as essentially the methodology gives the opportunity for the researcher to polish the literature review with additional ideas and issues, which streamline the questions that are required to obtain a wholesome evaluation of the hypothesis, hopefully furnishing the researcher with enough evidence to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
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The Key element of focusing the research methodology is what type of research, or indeed combination to use. This being qualitative or quantitative. For example Denzin and Lincoln (1994) state quantitative research relies heavily on mass data and figures and cannot therefore contain the same degree of in depth analysis, where as According to Deacon, Pickering, Golding and Murdock (1999, p.81a) ‘the use of statistics in social sciences can evoke strong reactions’ This is due to the fact that researchers can view quantification as ‘a denial of the quality and complexity of our collective and individual worlds’ According to Deacon, Pickering, Golding and Murdock (1999, p.81b) in essence one is not better or more scientific than the other, what matters is how the project would benefit from the selection made. Following on from this decision is then how the data will be collected. As stated earlier there are advantages and disadvantages of using the myriad of techniques but it is important that the approach is qualified by the researcher Smith (1975). To simply choose a method because “it seems right” or “this is what was done before” will without doubt have dire consequences for the researcher leading to a complete distortion of the facts preventing the researcher from correctly establishing whether the hypothesis is true.
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The research project needs to identify the exploratory traits of key personnel within the construction industry to determine the desire for embracing new technologies. This is a requirement to meet some of the objectives and to have a true representation of this can only be achieved through good qualitative questions, furthermore to address part of the aims requirement for example the effective and practical possibilities of fuel cell technology needs to be addressed in an attempt to prove the hypothesis true or false; this type of response can only be achieved through good quantitative questions. So it can be seen that the use of both methods is a requirement for this particular project to achieve a complete and accurate representation in assembly of data.
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Recommendations

Smith. H. W., (1975) Strategies of Social Research: The Methodological Imagination. 1st ed. New Jersey: A. Wheaton & Co.
Herman Smith discusses sociology in extreme depth and detail. His approach to improving data quality is particularly interesting and educational.

Bell. J., (1999) Doing Your Research Project: A guide for first time researchers in education and social science. 3rd ed. Berkshire: Open University Press.
This book by Judith Bell is a must for first time researchers, the language is easy to understand and the book goes into enough detail for postgraduate students. An excellent source of reference
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References

Denzin. N. K., Lincoln. Y. S., The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. 3rd ed. Texas: Sage

CIOB., (2001) Sustainability in Constructionn [Online] Available at:
<www.ciob.org.uk/filegrab/sustainability.pdf?ref=74>
[Accessed 19th February 2007]

Gummesson. E., (2000) Qualitative Methods in Management Research. 1st ed. Stockholm: Sage Publications Inc.

Youngman. M. B., (1986) Analysing Questionnaires. 1st ed. Nottingham: Nottingham School of Education

Smith. H. W., (1975) Strategies of Social Research: The Methodological Imagination. 1st ed. New Jersey: A. Wheaton & Co.

Bell. J., (1999) Doing Your Research Project. 3rd ed. Berkshire: Open University Press

Prus. R., (1996) Symbolic Interaction and Ethnographic Research. 1st ed. Albany: University of New York Press

Hutchinson. S. A., (1988) Education and Grounded Theory. In R. Sherman and R. B. Webb, (Eds.), Qualitative Research in Education: New York: The Falmer Press.

Denzin., (1978) The Research Act, A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods. 2nd ed: McGraw Hill

Gill et al., (1997) Report of the European DNA profiling group. (s.l): (s:n)

Oppenheim. A. N., (1992) Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement. London: Pinter Publishers.

Bassey. M., (1990) On the nature of research in education. Nottingham Polytechnic Faculty of Education PGDip and MEd Course Reader One.

Woods. P., (1999) Successful Writing for Qualitative Researchers. 2nd ed. London: Routledgefarmer
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S., (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. California: Sage Publications.
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Deacon. D, Pickering. M, Golding. P, Murdock., (1999) ‘Using Graphs’ in Researching Communications: A Practical Guide to Methods in Media and Cultural Analysis. London: Arnold.

Bibliography

Bynner. J., Stribley. K. M., (1979) Social Research: Principles and Procedures.4th ed. Essex: Longman Group UK Ltd

Wilson. M., (1978) Social and Educational Research in Action. 3rd ed. Essex: Longman Group Ltd

To follow soon in Energy Efficicency and the Environment is the second part of this article......

Understanding Energy, Efficiency and the Environment

2009-09-24T20:23:00.014+12:00

Welcome to my latest blog on all things to do with the environment, energy efficiency and technologies that can help you achieve savings in energy consumption and at the same time improve your carbon footprint. This is my initial set up of the page, with all comments, observations to follow soon. I have been involved in the industry for a few years now and hopefully you will find this blog both useful and informative. If you have any questions please feel free to email me at: generalcommentsplease@yahoo.com. Look forward to the following discussions that will inevitably follow on the environment, carbon footprinting and energy efficiency. Firstly, a discussion on how pollution from construction affects the environment.

Introduction

In terms of how the environment is effected by modern day construction techniques, pollution is quite a generic term. Covering subjects such as noise, fumes, demolition waste, Co2 emissions, etc. Perhaps the most lethal form of pollution today is the effect that Co2 production has on our environment. It is almost considered an undeniable fact that Co2 emissions is having a detrimental effect on the global atmosphere and is thought to be the most damaging gas to the environment.

The built environment

“The built environment is on of the most significant contributors to global warming” Builder (2007, p.18)
Not only does the energy used to extract, transport and build our environment contribute significantly to carbon emissions but so too does the energy used to maintain a building, according to a press release Eurima (2007, p.1) it is stated that as much as 40% of Europes Co2 emissions is as a direct result of energy used to maintain a building. To understand how this is so, one has to simply look at the services that a modern day building requires from day to day.

· Heating
The use of heating is a requirement in all buildings and how this is achieved will determine the efficiency of a building. Many large older office buildings will use a perimeter wet heating system, this needs to be heated via gas or oil fired burners.

· Lighting
Offices use a large amount of lighting, and, depending on the type of work that is conducted in offices will also determine the level of lighting required.

· Cooling
Cooling. It is becoming common place now to see offices with air conditioning or comfort cooling.

· Ventilation
Ventilation is often required in the workplace. Traditionally this is achieved through mechanical ventilation – requiring the use of additional electrical consumption.

· Refreshment facilities
Refreshment facilities for the use of hot drinks and food.

· ICT equipment
The energy required for PC use, printers, scanners, fax machines etc all a necesity in todays work place

· Sanitation
The use of water for washing and the flushing of toilets and urinals. It may seem odd to include water here, but it must be remembered to move water to a building requires energy

· Back up power services
The provision of generators to provide a continued electrical service in the event of power failure.

Some simple steps can be taken to reduce the amount of energy that the above processes use, are as follows:

· Lighting.
In new builds the most suitable solution is to maximise the use of natural daylight. Obviously the use of windows is considerd from the outset, but poor design can often lead to problems for occupants as well as the issue of maintenance. Often types of structure will not allow the use of windows, so artificial lighting is used, which, intialy is cheap and convenient. This can be overcome by the introduction of rooflights, which either channel natural daylight directly into a room or indirectly via refection. If artificial lighting must be used or alterations to a building is not possible, intelligent lighting controls should be retrofited and the use of high efficiency fluorescent lights should be considered. Intelligent lighting systems, through the use of photocells and proximity detectors can adjust lighiting levels (dimming if natural daylight is high) and switch off units during periods of non occupancy. This can result in high savings of electricity. The use of halogen spotlights are often seen in buildings, mainly for aesthetic reasons, to give an air of proffesionalism. Halogen spotlights are extremely inefficient and with the market saturation of LED’s (Light Emitting Diode) it is now affordable to replace a 25 Watt Halogen spotlight with a 3 Watt LED, the savings are evident.

· Cooling/Ventilation
For new buildings, cooling should be designed into the structure. A common (and cheap) approach is to ahieve a stack affect. A stack affect system utlises the difference in temprature and humidity to force air into a building and subsequently have a cooling affect by removing stale, hot air. Automated vents strategically placed within the building are operated by a building management system, opening and closing louvres as necessary to facilitate the effect. There are numerous other systems that can be used in addition to this, such as cooling the entire building fabric during hours of non occupancy by pumping chilled water through structural columns and beams, as well as having louvres open to allow the cooler night air into the building. By cooling the entire fabric if a building has a similar, reverse effect of a night storage heater. This system is not entirely green but does reduce the reliance on split air conditioning systems for example. Modern architectural designs are becoming increasingly bold in designing buildings geared towards efficiency. Tall structures especially create their only microclimate and designs taking this into account can use this effect and the phenomenon of the bernouli principle to produce forced ventilation for free cooling.

· Refreshment Facilities
To boil a kettle can use anything between 40 Watts and 150 Watts. This may not seem a great deal, but if this is considereed accumalatively then the consumption soon adds up. For example, a typical office building of 400 employees, may contain anything upto 40 kettles. So to do a simple calculation and using the lowest consumption figure the enery usage in one year may be as follows:

40 Watts * 6 boils a day * 40 Kettles * 7 (1 week) * 50 Weeks = 3,360,000 Watts or 3360Kwh per year. This is the equivalent to nearly 1 ½ Tonnes of Co2 per year. An alternative to this would be to install point of use hot water dispensers which have a far lower consumption. E.g. 800W per 24hrs * 4 dispensers * 351 days = ½ Tonne of Co2.

These are rough calculations and obviously there would be a cost implication, to work out the payback period and so on, but it does highlite how simple procedures can have significant impacts. Just this alone would prevent 1000 Kg of carbon emissions.

· ICT Equipment.
Similar calculations can be carried out to work our carbon savings for reducing the amount of printers used, moving to a centralised point of use for printing, faxing, scanning etc. Changing PC’s with energy hungry monitors to more efficient Flat screens.

· Sanitation.
Water savings are often disregarded which is probably due to an apprent abundant supply and also the general low cost. It should be noted, however that 97% of water on earth is seawater of which 2.7% of this is permanently frozen in the ice poles, leaving only 0.3% of fresh water according to Builder (2007, p.41)
A solution to reducing the use of water and consequntially reducing the electrical energy required to distribute water, rainwater harvesting is a feasible option. Recycling rain (grey) water is achieved through collecting the run off from rooftops and storing in an undeground tank. This can then be connected to the existing water system of a building and used alongside. The greywater can be used for flushing urinals and toilets. In a domestic sceneario water used from baths/showers or washing up of cutlery can also be utilsed, although this requires the additional use of a filtration system so it can then be reused. Rainwater harvesting systems can be retro fitted but work out far more cheaper if installed during a new build.

Some of the above procedures explained are relatively straight forward to implement and cheap, whilst others rely on installation at design stage, the intention is to identify how pollution of carbon can be reduced. To expand on this further microgeneration is explored.

Microgeneration

According to central government “microgeneration is the production of heat and/or electrcity on a small scale........from a low carbon source” Dti (sl).
Essentially microgeneration allows the user to provide their own electricity from sources that are either carbon neutral or have a very low carbon emission.

The following list is a number of technologies available and how they can be used to prevent carbon emissions.

· Solar photovoltaics
· Wind turbines
· Solar Thermal Hot Water
· Ground Source Heat Pumps
· Bio-Energy (Biomass)
· Fuel Cells

· Solar Photovoltaics
Solar photovoltaics has been established for decades now and has always been a very expensive form of producing free electric, although with improved technologies it is slowly showing signs of becoming more affordable. Solar Pholtaics or PV cells work buy a chemical reaction from sunlight acting upon silicon within the cell. The reaction produces electricity. This form of technology is used in many application from calculators and satelites to flat roof applications and glass curtain walling. It is completely free from carbon emissions and has a long shelf life. The main draw back with PV cells is that it is essentially weather dependant, this therefore requires electricity to be stored, for use on cloudy days for example. The produced electricity is stored in the form of batteries, similar to car batteries and can take up a lot of room and requires a maintenace regime by specialist contractors.

· Wind Turbines
Small scale turbines, as the name suggests rely on wind power to rotate the turbines and generate electricity. Very similar to how a traditional dynamo on bycicles is used, to power a light by using the turning wheel to rotate the dynamo, except in this instance it is wind turning the blades. This form of energy production is completely renewable and cheper than PV installations with shorter payback periods, although still expensive. Unfortunately this technology does not operate at 100% efficiency and is reliant on the environment, varing wind speeds will determine how much electricity can be produced. So this system will always require the use of other electrical sources during windless days, although it can be argued that
excess energy produced could also be stored in battery vats. No doubt that this would escalate the supply and installation cost significantly and deter potential clients.

· Solar Thermal Hot Water.
This system is perhaps the most easiest technology to install and also a lot cheper than other technologies. The principle is basic, with solar panels being fitted to a roof that collects heat from the suns radiation, this in turn is then used to heat water. This system is prolific in sunnier climates and despite the fluctuating weather in the UK the system is effective in the summer and also enough heat is generated in cooler months to produce approximateley 50% of heating requirements.

· Ground Source Heat Pumps
This technology often reffered to as geothermal energy uses the earth as a cooling and heating medium. At present there are a number of designs that are utilised, these are, horizontal loop system, vertical loop system and coil loop sytem. All of these achieve the same result of using the earth to extract the hot or cold energy from a refrigerant. The actual pump itself, as well as projecting the solution around the pipework boosts the cooling or heating capacity of the system. No doubt this is a very effective system and costs can be reasonable for basic installations. It must be noted that this sytem is not entireley a green technology, requiring the electrical energy for the heat pump, however claims of 3Kw of heating/Cooling for every 1Kw consumed. It should be noted however that the heat provided by geothermal energy is low grade, in other words it would not be suitable to replace an existing perimeter wet heating system but more to use it to reduce the heating requirement of existing plant, the tecvhnology is ideally suited to under floor heating, providing a permanent low grade heat output to the floor fabric.

· Biomass
Biomass is simply the production of crops for the use of burning in a purpose designed boiler or for the production of biofuel. This system is perhaps one of the cheapest available and easiest to use once installation of the required plant has taken place. It is effective and sourcing of the correct type of crop is becoming a lot easier due to continued press exposure with more farmers now becoming involved with the planting of the specialist crop. The major downfall of this technology is that the energy used in plant for farming and distribution of the fuel totally offsets the benefits it can be argued.

· Fuel Cells.
This is perhaps the most technically complex technology available on the market, originally developed by Nasa for use in shuttle expeditions, fuel cells are quite remarkable. A fuel cell will convert hydrogen into electricity with the only bi-product being water. There are an array of different types of fuel cells, but essentially they all achieve the same result. Again, as with other microgeneration the advances in science have enabled fuel cells to become affordable and products are just starting to emerge in the market. UPS systems announced its first fuel cell UPS order in July of this year. At the moment UPS (Uninteruptable Power Supply) is a very suitable use for fuel cells. Traditionally a UPS system is backed up by a fossil fuel burning generator to maintian electrical services during a power failure. Fuel cells can now replace the generator using hydrogen as a fuel source. The systems take up less space, are extremely quiet in operation and only produce water as a bi-product, which can easily be piped away from a building using a gravity feed. The price of hydrogen canisters are also begining to show favourable comparisons with fossil fuel. As with all systems there is a downside, which is production of Hydrogen. At present this is mainly achieved using electrcity generated from fossil fuel burning power plants. It is possible to extract Hydrogen from water and some experimental models are in the early design stage in an attempt to produce a fully renewable system.
“The activities of constructing and running a building have a major effect on the environment………….energy used in buildings is responsible for around half of the total production of carbon Dioxide gas” McMullan (2002, p.353)

Conclusion

It is without doubt that global warming is now given the attention and consideration that is required in an effort to make change happen and effectively prevent global warming from escalating to an irreversible level and protecting our environment. It is also widely accepted that air pollution through the manmade production of carbon emissions is a catalyst of global warming and the reduction of which will reduce the threat of climate change.
Central government appears to be stepping up its approach to climate change through various legislation, which has become a requirement since joining of the Kyoto protocol in 1997; requiring the UK to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions to 12.5% of 1990 levels by the year 2010, with a domestic target of 20% by 2010.
The climate change levy introduced in 2001 penalises companies for sourcing electricity from a non-renewable source, currently this is 0.43p per Kwh of power consumed, so by purchasing electricity from ‘green’ sources removes the levy. The building regulations have also recently gone through some changes. Part L of the regulations states that buildings must have a public display of the buildings energy rating – an effective way for companies to raise their profile by displaying an energy efficient poster showing a good rating. On a practical level new buildings must achieve a certain rating through increased energy performaning materials, plant etc before it can actually be built.
The role of central government is paramount in helping to reduce Co2 emissions. Through legislation and grants, newer, more efficient technologies can be harnessed. Without doubt, reducing the energy that buildings use will have a significant impact on the environment and micro generation is the technology that will help to achieve this.
Ironic then that over the decades, humanities drive for new technology e.g. the internal combustion engine, has in essence caused the problem of climate change, so it seems technology will solve the problem.

References

McMullan. R., (2002.) Environmental Science in Building. 5th ed. Hampshire: Palgrave

Department of Trade and Industry Fact Sheet., – Sources of energy file27590. [Online] Available at: <http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file25790.pdf>

Builder and Engineer. C132, 06.07, p.18

Builder and Engineer. C132, 06.07, p.41

Eurima. S1, 12.06.07, p.1

I hope you have found this first post interesting. there will be more to follow soon on how you can achieve energy efficiency and how this affects the environment