Energy Efficiency & the Environment¦Fuel Cells

Welcome back, this is the last installment of the fuel cells review....
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The DTI (2003) opine that whilst it is apparent that vehicle propulsion is still in its infancy, Powell et al (2004, p.15) aknowledges that fuel cells are “ideal candidates for CHP” claiming efficiencies as high as 80% can be achieved. efficiency
The realm of portable applications, auxillary power units and gensets is where fuel cells will no doubt excel. Adner and Levinthal (see Hendry, Harborne, Brown 2004, p.7) opine “that the normal situation for radical innovation, is with progress being made in steps through marketing innovations to niches, and then broadening these niches until a mainstream market forms” Auxillary power and portable applications includes for plant such as battery chargers, UPS² systems, portable generators and consumer electronics.environment.environment efficiency .environment ciency
It should be remembered that fuel cells have two main characteristics. The ability to produce electricity and the abiltity to produce heat. It is the opinion of Marsh (2007) that the main fuel cells that are showing dominance within the market today are: ¹ Generator ² Uninteruptable Power Supply · Polymer Eloctrolyte Membrane (PEM) · Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) · Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) For the UK, development of fuel cells has centered mainly around two types of fuel cells, these being SOFC and PEM (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004) PEM and SOFC fuel cells use a solid polymer electrolyte, which is generally considered favourable compared to direct methanol fuel cells which use liquid electrolyte that can be suseptable to corrosion and gas vapour (Powell et al 2004). The other advantages for the PEM and SOFC cells is the operating tempratures. The PEM has a low operating temprature giving a fast start up time with an electrolyte membrane that is no thicker than a couple of sheets of paper (HSE 2004) this allows a large number of cells to be arranged in a short space allowing the unit to provide a lot of power from a relatively small unit. Making the unit ideal for stationary and portable power. The SOFC on contrast to the PEM has a high operating temprature, this is in the region of 700°C to 1000°C. Due to the high operating temperature a reformer is not required and various hydrocarbon fuels can be utilised by the cell, the high heat potential from this type of fuel cell makes CHP a practicle application. (USDE 2000) It is true that to say that “The Environmental avantages of fuel cells also vary with their application” (Evers, 2003, p.727) and this seems the case with direct methanol fuel cells which, despite using a liquid electrolyte is considerd an appropriate fuel stock for the use in portable electronic appliances (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004) and this is perhaps why Marsh (2007, p.10) states “DMFC is the type of fuel cell likely to achieve commercial status first”. environment efficiency environment efficiency environment efficiency
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Plant Replacement To consider the practicality and cost implications with replacing end of life plant within the UK construction industry, with fuel cell technology the following requires addressing: · National Infrastructure and vehicles · Portable Applications for use on a construction site · Auxillary Power Units on a construction site · Gensets and remote power. · Combined Heat and power. It is fair to say, that fuel cell technology in terms of vehicle propulsion, is not at this time a commercial consideration when considering replacing vehicular plant “...fuel cells are curently commercially competative only in narrow ‘premium power’ niches wher quality of electricity are of primary concern or where no other technology is appropriate” (DTI 2006, p.6) So, to address the aims and objectives of the hypothesis and to give consideration to secondary data and the methodology to be formulated following this report, the speed of technological advancement in fuel cells (Marsh 2007) gives an indication as to wether replacing end of life plant is a commercial viability. DTI (2007, p.14) reports that the SOFC stack, “offers the potential for application in a wide range of market sectors beyond grid connected CHP” It is considered then, that this technology is also inceasing at a reasonable speed (Graves, 2007) and to consider the observations of Powell et al (2004) that CHP is, perhaps a direction in the industrial, domestic and construction sector that Fuell cells will excel. As stated previously it has also been identified that PEM stacks are also benefitting from many years of UK research as to is SOFC stacks.environment efficiency
Pem fuel cells commercial viability relies on membrane technology, allowing many independant cells to be stacked into a short space with low weight and high power, the additional benefit is of a low operating temprature of approximatley 60°C with high power (HSE 2004). Additional research DTI (2006) concurrs that “[PEM advancement] techniques [are] amenable to mass production]” To date, in the UK, evidence that portable fuel cells have been used within the construction sector is limited, but not entirely uncommon. Portable battery chargers and remote chargers as well as auxillary power units finding their way slowly, but surely, into the construction sector, and this is in preference to traditional portable gensets. (Weston & Matcham 2002) This may seem unusual. Why purchase a more expensive, high technology portable appliance within construction? As (Evers, 2003) emphasises, niche markets have been identifed by the emergence of fuel cell technology. environment efficiency
Construction covers a vast spectrum of activities, from demolition through to intricate work, which may at times require a power source that is not as intrusive as a portable generator. Amongst other activities, communication has always been of vital importance in relaying instructions on site (Chudley & Greeno 2002). Direct Methanol Fuel Cells are begining to show signs of achieving results that some consider may elapse existing communciation devices sources of supply, Marsh (2007). Although this technology relies on a liquid electrolyte, in micro portable systems, as visited earlier within this report it is considered appropriate and indications suggest from various journal publications (FC Focus 2007) that the technology may far surpass existing battery configurations (Hendry, Harborne & Brown 2004). Conclusion Investment, corporte responsibilty, design & build, planning, regeneration, Agenda 21, Kyoto agreement, nuclear fuel, renewable technology, hydrogen ecomcomy, payback periods. Just a few considerations, all of which ask questions and the requirement to address the entire picture of microgeneration technology, exiting construction procedures, fossil fuel extraction and what is the alternative. environment efficiency
Bentham (2004, p.2) suggests that amongst the above questions, before practicle issues of payback periods and even government grants can be taken into consideration in replacing plant or utilising emerging technology, a cornerstone of influence is “social acceptance”, if there is a lack of interest people will simply adopt a blasé attitude, on the other hand however, if too much enthusiasm is placed on a product too soon, “this may become a threat, because of the [unwarranted] expectations of the public and consumers” To avoid unwarranted expectations from members of public and to gain social acceptance the technology requires more demonstration units and also “...more field trials [which] would increase customer understanding...” (Sanderson 2005, p.18). Graham, Cruden, Hart (2002) opine that because the technology is still very new, it is this in itself, amongst high costs that reluctance of investment is commonplace and that this may continue until emergence of well known brands offer the client reasurrances of hydrogen safety as well as guaranteed efficiencies and life of plant. environment efficiency
It seems highly likely as suggested by Evers (2003) that after social acceptance is no longer an obstacle that fuel cells main market emergence will be in the portable power, CHP and UPS systems. environment efficiency environment efficiency
Suffice to say the first commercial sale of a full UPS system in July of this year was completed. The Fuel cell UPS system was purchased by a company that deals with the purchase and sales of stocks and shares, which required continued power in the event of power failure. So to use a genset for continued power would be completely impracticle, therfore a fuel cell was chosen mainly because noise pollution is virtually eliminated, due to no moving parts, unlike a generator (Anon 2007).environment efficiency
It is not unreasonable then, to speculate that this very niche market is where fuel cells will initially excel. Note: If this 2nd part literature review was to be taken forward then the methodolgy, as well as the designing of questionaires as identified in the part 1 submission would be carried out in an endeavour to prove the hypothesis and null hypothesis true or false. This literature review would be considered as primary data and also an aid in achieving triangualtion of results.
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Appendices. Appendix A..............................................Fuel Cell Characteristics Appendix B...................................................5KW PEM Fuel Stack Appendix A soon to be uploaded Appendix B soon to be uploaded References Anon., (2007) First Order for Fuel Cell UPS. Electrical Review., 240(7), pp. 5-6 Anon (2003) Review of UK Fuel Cell Commercial Potential. (s.l.): (s.n.) Ashwini. R., (2007) Fuel Cells inch forward. FCFocus The International Fuel Cell Magazine., 7(2), pp.14-15 Bentham. J., (2004) Lighthouses for Hydrogen. [Online]. Available at: Reprint of Shell Venster, November 2004. (s.n). Chudley. R., and Greeno. R., Building Construction Handbook: Incorporating Current Building And Construction Regulations. 4th ed Cornwall: MPG Books Ltd. Crawley. G., and Butler., Low Carbon Communities. [Online]. Dutton A.G. (2002) Hydrogen Energy Technology. [Online]. Available at: http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/wp17.pdf>
Tyndall Working Paper TWP 17. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change, University of East Anglia: Norwich. Evers A. A., (2003) Go To Where The Market Is! Challenges And Opportunities To Bring Fuel Cells To The International Market. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy., 28(7), pp.725-733 Graham. H., Cruden. A., and Hart. J., (2002) Assesment Of The Implementation Issues For Fuel Cells In Domestic And Small Scale Stationary Power Generation And CHP Applications. [Online]. Available at: http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file15205.pdf> environment efficiency
Graves. D., Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Carbon Sequestration. [Online]. Available at: NiSource Energy Technologies Working Paper. (s.n). Great Britain. Department of Trade and Industry., (2003). Energy White Paper: Our Energy Future, Creating a Low Carbon Economy. [Online]. Available at: London: The Stationary Office [Accessed 24th July 2007] GREAT BRITAIN. Department of Trade and Industry., (2003). A Sustainable Energy Technology Route Map On Fuel Cells. [Online]. Available at: London, The Stationary Office GREAT BRITAIN. Department of Trade and Industry., (2006). Advanced PEM Stack Development. [Online]. Available at: London, The Stationary Office Great Britain. Department of Trade and Industry., (2006). A Lightweight Array Plate With Integrated Reformer For A Metal Supported SOFC Stack. [Online]. Available at: London: The Stationary Office Great Britain. Health and Safety Executive., (2002). Fuel Cells: Understand the Hazards, Control the risks. 1st ed. Suffolk: HSE Books. Hendry. C., Harbone. P., and Brown. J., (2004) Fuel Cell Innovation: A developing UK Industry?. Research Paper, London Cass Business School: City Campus. Kala. P., and Hicks. M., (2004) Defence Technical Information Centre., ed., 30th Environmental and Energy Symposium & Exhibition. 5 - 8 April 2004. San Diego: National Defense Industrial Association. Leo. J., Blomen M. J., and Mugerwa. M. N., (1993) Fuel Cell Systems. 1st ed. New York: Plenum Publishers Marsh. G., (2007) Reality Beckons?. FCFocus The International Fuel Cell Magazine., 1(2), pp.10-15 McMullan. R., (2002) Environmental Science in Buildings. 5th ed. Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan Murphy, E. R. P., (2003) Fuel Cell Folly: Preliminary. [Online]. Peters. M and Powell. J., (2001) A Stakeholder Analysis of Barriers And Opportunities For Stationary Fuel Cell Applications In The UK. CSERGE Working Paper ECM 06-01. Centre For Social And Economic Research On The Global Environment, University Of East Anglia: Norwich. Powell. J., Peters. M., Ruddell. A., and Halliday. J., Fuel Cells for a Sustainable Future. [Online]. Tyndall Working Paper TWP 50. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change, University of East Anglia, Norwich. [Accessed 4th September 2007] SAE International., (2002). Fuel Cell Technology Showcase: History of Fuel Cells. [Online]. Available at: http://www.sae.org/fuelcells/fuelcells-history.htm> environment efficiency
USA: SAE International. [Accessed 12th June 2007] Sanderson. T. K., (2005) An Updated Assesment Of The Prospects For Fuel Cells In Stationary Power And CHP. [Online]. Available at: http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file18181.pdf> Turner. J. A., (1999) A Realizable Renewable Energy Future. Science Magazine., 285(30th July), pp.687-689 USA. U.S Department of Energy., (2000). Fuel Cell Handbook. 5th ed. USA: National Energy Technology Laboratory. Utterback J. M., (1994). Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation. 1st ed. United States of America: Harvard Business School Press. Weston. M and Matcham. W., (2002) Portable Power Applications of Fuel Cells. (s.l.): (s.n.) Bibliography Cheshire. D., Grant Z. (2007) Sustainability: CIBSE Guide L. 1st ed. Norfolk: Page Bros. (Norwich) Ltd. Watson. P., (2005) Course Notes for BSc (Hons) Building Engineering: Research Methods. 1st ed. Sheffield: Hallam University Further Reading J. Larminie and A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons Ltd (2003). M.H. Westbrook, The Electric Car: Development and Future of Battery, Hybrid and Fuel-Cell Cars, London: Institution of Electrical Engineers; Society of Automotive Engineers (2001). High-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Fundamentals, Design and Applications by S.C. Singhal and K. Kendall (Eds.), Publisher: Elsevier Science (2004).